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- Development of a questionnaire to assess knowledge about and perceptions of edible insectsPublication . Guiné, Raquel P.F.; Florença, Sofia G.; Costa, Cristina A.; Correia, Paula M.R.; Ferreira, Manuela; Duarte, João; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Campos, Sofia; Anjos, O.Edible insects (EI) have been consumed as traditional foods in many parts of the globe, but in other regions, they are not readily accepted, particularly in Western countries. However, because EI are suggested to constitute a more sustainable protein food as compared with other sources of animal protein, they can be considered a future food that could help mitigate hunger and malnutrition. Additionally, new gastronomic trends are already targeting this area for exploring new potentialities. The objective of this work was to develop and validate a questionnaire to assess consumers’ perceptions and knowledge about EI in seven different domains: D1. Culture and Tradition, D2. Gastronomic Innovation and Gourmet Kitchen, D3. Environment and Sustainability, D4. Economic and Social Aspects, D5. Commercialization and Marketing, D6. Nutritional Aspects and D7. Health Effects. The 64 items were subjected to item analysis and reliability analysis for validation, and factor analysis was also conducted to identify a grouping structure. The results validated all the items of the seven subscales with high values of Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.732 for D1, α = 0.795 for D2, α = 0.882 for D3, α = 0.742 for D4, α = 0.675 for D5, α = 0.799 for D6 and α = 0.788 for D7). However, by eliminating 17 items, the final values of the alpha increased in all subscales. Factor analysis with extraction by principal component analysis with varimax rotation extracted 14 factors that explained, in total, 65% of the variance, although the first two factors were the most important (35.7% variance explained). In conclusion, the confirmed usefulness of the questionnaire has been hereby validated for assessing consumer perceptions of and knowledge about EI.
- Edible insects – exotic food or gastronomic innovation? Study involving 14 countriesPublication . Guiné, Raquel P.F.; Florença, Sofia G.; Bartkiene, Elena; Tarcea, Monica; Chuck-Hernández, Cristina; Djekic, Ilija; Sarić, MarijanavMatek; Boustani, Nada M.; Korzeniowska, Malgorzata; Klava, Dace; Papageorgiou, Maria; Fresno Baro, José Maria; Černelič-Bizjak, Maša; Damarli, Emel; Ferreira, Vanessa; Costa, Cristina A.; Correia, Paula M.R.; Ferreira, Manuela; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Campos, Sofia; Anjos, O.This study explores the perceptions about edible insects and their usage in modern gastronomy. Data were collected through questionnaire survey in 14 countries, and 7222 responses were obtained. ANOVA and factor analysis were used, respectively to evaluate differences between groups and to analyze the scale items. The results showed that participants showed higher agreement toward insects being considered exotic foods and being associated with taboos and neophobia. Some sociodemographic factors (country, age class, education level and income) were proven to significantly influence with the perceptions. while sex and living environment did not. Factor analysis extracted three factors, one associated with the uses of insects in gastronomy, another associated with insects as foods and a third about insects not being proper for human consumption. In conclusion, the work revealed differences between countries in the perceptions about edible insects, and that these perceptions were also significantly influenced according to other sociodemographic variables.
- Estudo internacional do nível de conhecimento sobre insetos comestíveisPublication . Guiné, Raquel P.F.; Florença, Sofia G.; Ferreira, Manuela; Costa, Cristina A.; Correia, Paula M.R.; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Campos, Sofia; Anjos, O.; Chuck-Hernández, Cristina; Saric, Marijana Matek; Fresno Baro, José Maria; Kozeniowska, Malgorzata; Černelič-Bizjak, Maša; Bartkiene, Elena; Tarcea, Monica; Boustani, Nada M.; Djekic, Ilija; Klava, Dace; Damarli, EmelO consumo de insetos é uma prática tradicional ao longo da história humana, mas o seu consumo é muito variável, de acordo com a região do globo. Procurou-se investigar o nível de conhecimento sobre insetos comestíveis numa amostra de participantes de treze países.
- The motivations for consumption of edible insects: a systematic reviewPublication . Florença, Sofia G.; Guiné, Raquel P.F.; Gonçalves, Fernando J.A.; Barroca, Maria João; Ferreira, Manuela; Costa, Cristina A.; Correia, Paula M.R.; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Campos, Sofia; Anjos, O.; Cunha, Luís MiguelThe consumption of edible insects (EI) is traditional in many parts of the world, but not in others. In fact, despite globalization and the multiple advantages pointed out about the consumption of EI, there are still many countries where entomophagy is seen with disgust and aversion. This systematic review aimed to examine the motivations that influence the consumption of EI in diverse cultures and understand if there are differences betweenWestern countries (WC) and insect-eating countries (IEC). It further evaluated whether the degree of acceptability was influenced by the form of consumption of the insects (eating whole insects or foods containing insects). This literature review was conducted in November 2021 within three databases, Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus, according to the Preferred Reporting of Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis and using PRISMA directives. From a total of 245 studies, 31 were selected to be included in this review, based on the inclusion criteria defined: only original research articles, from 2010 or beyond, and written in English. The results indicated that the main motivations that determine the consumption of EI are related to gender, age, sustainability, nutritional value, sensory attributes, tradition/culture, food neophobia, disgust and familiarity/past experiences. Moreover, whereas in IEC, there is a greater focus on factors related to sensory attributes, availability, affordability and preferences, in WC, there is a bigger emphasis on determinants such as nutritional value, sustainability, benefits, familiarity/past experience, tradition/culture, food neophobia and disgust. Finally, it was observed that people in WC are more willing to accept food products containing insects rather than the whole insect, which is one of the most promising points to be addressed in the future. Overall, this review highlights that there are numerous factors influencing the consumption of edible insects, and differences between WC and IEC are clear in what concerns the motivations of consumers. Hence, targeting market segments and consumers’ characteristics has to be present when designing strategies to incentivize the consumption of EI in WC as a part of a global strategy for sustainability of food systems.
- Development of a questionnaire to assess knowledge and perceptions about edible insectsPublication . Guiné, Raquel P.F.; Florença, Sofia G.; Costa, Cristina A.; Correia, Paula M.R.; Ferreira, Manuela; Duarte, João; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Campos, Sofia; Anjos, O.Edible insects (EI) have been consumed as traditional foods in many parts of the globe, but in other regions, they are not readily accepted, particularly in Western countries. However, because EI are suggested to constitute a more sustainable protein food as compared with other sources of animal protein, they can be considered a future food that could help mitigate hunger and malnutrition. Additionally, new gastronomic trends are already targeting this area for exploring new potentialities. The objective of this work was to develop and validate a questionnaire to assess consumers’ perceptions and knowledge about EI in seven different domains: D1. Culture and Tradition, D2. Gastronomic Innovation and Gourmet Kitchen, D3. Environment and Sustainability, D4. Economic and Social Aspects, D5. Commercialization and Marketing, D6. Nutritional Aspects and D7. Health Effects. The 64 items were subjected to item analysis and reliability analysis for validation, and factor analysis was also conducted to identify a grouping structure. The results validated all the items of the seven subscales with high values of Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.732 for D1, α = 0.795 for D2, α = 0.882 for D3, α = 0.742 for D4, α = 0.675 for D5, α = 0.799 for D6 and α = 0.788 for D7). However, by eliminating 17 items, the final values of the alpha increased in all subscales. Factor analysis with extraction by principal component analysis with varimax rotation extracted 14 factors that explained, in total, 65% of the variance, although the first two factors were the most important (35.7% variance explained). In conclusion, the confirmed usefulness of the questionnaire has been hereby validated for assessing consumer perceptions of and knowledge about EI.
- Development of the EISUFOOD questionnaire : Edible Insects as Sustainable FoodsPublication . Florença, Sofia G.; Costa, Cristina A.; Correia, Paula M.R.; Ferreira, Manuela; Duarte, João; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Campos, Sofia; Anjos, O.; Guiné, Raquel P.F.Development of the EISUFOOD questionnaire : Edible Insects as Sustainable Foods
- Investigation of the level of knowledge in different countries about edible insects : cluster segmentationPublication . Guiné, Raquel P.F.; Florença, Sofia G.; Costa, Cristina A.; Correia, Paula M.R.; Ferreira, Manuela; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Campos, Sofia; Anjos, O.; Chuck-Hernández, Cristina; Sarić, Marijana Matek; Djekic, Ilija; Papageorgiou, Maria; Fresno Baro, José Maria; Korzeniowska, Malgorzata; Černelič-Bizjak, Maša; Bartkiene, Elena; Tarcea, Monica; Boustani, Nada M.; Klava, Dace; Damarli, EmelThis study aimed to investigate the level of knowledge about edible insects (EIs) in a sample of people from thirteen countries (Croatia, Greece, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Mexico, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, and Turkey). Data collection was based on a questionnaire survey applied through online tools between July and November 2021. For data analysis, techniques such as factor analysis, cluster analysis, and chi-square tests were used, with a significance level of 5%. A total of 27 items were used to measure knowledge on a five-point Likert scale. Applying factor analysis with principal components and Varimax rotation, a solution that explains about 55% of variance was obtained. This accounts for four factors that retained 22 of the 27 initial items: F1 = Sustainability (8 items), F2 = Nutrition (8 items), F3 = Production Factors (2 items), and F4 = Health Concerns (4 items). Internal consistency was evaluated through Cronbach’s alpha. The cluster analysis consisted of the application of hierarchical methods followed by k-means and produced three clusters (1—‘fearful’, 2—‘farming,’ and 3—‘ecological’ individuals). The characterisation of the clusters revealed that age did not influence cluster membership, while sex, education, country, living environment, professional area, and income all influenced the composition of the clusters. While participants from Mexico and Spain were fewer in the ‘fearful’ cluster, in those from Greece, Latvia, Lebanon, and Turkey, the situation was opposed. Participants from rural areas were mostly in cluster 2, which also included a higher percentage of participants with lower income. Participants from professional areas linked with biology, food, and nutrition were mostly in cluster 3. In this way, we concluded that the level of knowledge about EIs is highly variable according to the individual characteristics, namely that the social and cultural influences of the different countries lead to distinct levels of knowledge and interpretation of information, thus producing divergent approaches to the consumption of insects—some more reluctant and measuring possible risks. In contrast, others consider EIs a good and sustainable protein-food alternative.
- Validation of the scale knowledge and perceptions about edible insects through structural equation modellingPublication . Guiné, Raquel P.F.; Duarte, João; Chuck-Hernández, Cristina; Boustani, Nada M.; Djekic, Ilija; Bartkiene, Elena; Sarić, Marijana Matec; Papageorgiou, Maria; Korzeniowska, Malgorzata; Combarros-Fuertes, Patricia; Černelič-Bizjak, Maša; Martin-Hadmas, Roxana; Straumite, Evita; Damarli, Emel; Florença, Sofia G.; Ferreira, Manuela; Costa, Cristina A.; Correia, Paula M.R.; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Campos, Sofia; Anjos, O.Edible insects have been suggested as a more sustainable source of protein, but their consumption varies according to geographical and sociocultural influences. Focusing on the different aspects that can influence people’s attitudes towards edible insects (EI), this work aimed to carry out the statistical validation of an instrument aimed at assessing different dimensions of this field: the KPEI (knowledge and perceptions about EI) scale. The instrument consists of 64 questions distributed by the following dimensions: Culture and Tradition, Gastronomic Innovation and Gourmet Kitchen, Environment and Sustainability, Economic and Social Aspects, Commercialization and Marketing, Nutritional Characteristics, and Health Effects. The data were collected in 13 countries (Croatia, Greece, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Mexico, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, and Turkey). The validation of the KPEI scale was made through Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The results revealed two acceptable models, both retaining 37 of the 64 initial items, distrusted by the seven dimensions as: Culture and Tradition (5 items), Gastronomic Innovation and Gourmet Kitchen (5 items), Environment and Sustainability (8 items), Economic and Social Aspects (5 items), Commercialisation and Marketing (4 items), Nutritional Aspects (6 items), Health Effects (4 items). Both multifactorial models resulting from the CFA/SEM analyses showed approximately equal goodness of statistical fit indices with values of Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Root Mean Square Residual (RMR), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) partially zero and values of Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) approximately one, i.e., very close to a perfect fit. For the first-order model, the ratio between chi-square and degrees of freedom is χ 2/df = 13.734, GFI = 0.932, CFI = 0.930, RMSEA = 0.043, RMR = 0.042, SRMR = 0.042; and for the second-order model χ 2/df = 14.697, GFI = 0.926, CFI = 0.923, RMSEA = 0.045, RMR = 0.047, SRMR = 0.046). The values of composite reliability (CR = 0.967) and mean extracted variance (MEV = 0.448) are indicative of a good fit. Finally, the reliability analysis indicated a very good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.941). These results confirm the successful validation of the KPEI scale, making it a valuable instrument for future application at the international level.
- Edible insects: A survey about perceptions regarding possible beneficial health effects and safety concerns among adult citizens from Portugal and RomaniaPublication . Guiné, Raquel P. F.; Florença, Sofia G.; Costa, Cristina A.; Correia, Paula M.R.; Ferreira, Manuela; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Campos, Sofia; Anjos, Ofélia; Bacarea, Vladimir; Bacarea, Anca; Buicu, Gabriela; Szasz, Simona; Martin-Hadmas, Roxana; Tarcea, MonicaAlthough edible insects (EI) have been consumed for ages in many countries around the world, in most European countries, this is not a traditional practice. Still, it has been encouraged as a sustainable source of animal protein besides other nutrients. The Food and Agricultural Organization and the United Nations, recommend consuming EI as a way to contribute to the sustainable development goals. Hence, this research investigated how participants from Portugal and Romania perceive EI, and how these can be useful as a source of nutrients and other benefits for human health, as well as possible risks. For that, it was undertaken a questionnaire survey, with data collected online in the two countries. For the analysis of data, basis statistics and chi-square tests were used. Results showed significant differences between Portuguese and Romanian participants in six out of ten questions, namely regarding safety (p < 0.001), use in traditional medicine (p < 0.001), possible infection with parasites (p = 0.021), of pesticides (p = 0.031), their usage as therapeutics (p = 0.001) and being potential sources of allergens (p < 0.001) and aflatoxins (p < 0.001). Also, differences were tested for other sociodemographic variables. The results showed significant differences according to age for only three questions, gender for only two questions, and Education for most of the questions, i.e., six out of the ten. These results highlighted the greater influence of variables like country of origin and education in the perception of the effects of EI in human health.
- Are consumers aware of sustainability aspects related to edible insects? Results from a study involving 14 countriesPublication . Guiné, Raquel P.F.; Florença, Sofia G.; Anjos, O.; Boustani, Nada M.; Chuck-Hernández, Cristina; Sarić, Marijana Matek; Ferreira, Manuela; Costa, Cristina A.; Bartkiene, Elena; Cardoso, Ana Paula; Tarcea, Monica; Correia, Paula M.R.; Campos, Sofia; Papageorgiou, Maria; Abarquero Camino, Daniel; Korzeniowska, Malgorzata; Černelič-Bizjak, Maša; Kruma, Zanda; Damarli, Emel; Ferreira, Vanessa; Djekic, IlijaIn recent years, edible insects have been suggested as an alternative food that is more sustainable compared with other sources of animal protein. However, knowledge about the sustainability aspects associated with this source of food may play a role in convincing consumers to adopt insects as part of their diet. In this context, the present study investigated the level of knowledge about the sustainability of edible insects in a group of people originating from 14 countries, with some naturally entomophagous and others not. To measure the knowledge, 11 items were selected and the scores obtained were tested with statistical tools (t-test for independent samples, analysis of variance—ANOVA) to search for differences according to sociodemographic and socioeconomic characteristics, geographical origin, and consumption habits of edible insects. The obtained results showed that, in general, knowledge is moderate, with the values of the average scores for the 11 items investigated ranging from 0.23 ± 0.99 to 0.66 ± 1.02, on a scale ranging from −2 (=very low knowledge) to 2 (=very high knowledge). The highest scores were found for items relating to the lower use of animal feed and lower emission of greenhouse gases required for the production of insects compared with beef. When investigating the differences between groups of participants, significant differences were generally found, revealing a trend for higher knowledge among males and young adults, for participants residing in urban areas and in countries such as Spain, Mexico, and Poland, and for participants with higher education levels and higher incomes. When testing the influence of consumption variables on the level of knowledge, the results showed a higher knowledge for participants who had already consumed insects or are willing to consume them. Finally, it was observed that higher knowledge was found for participants whose motivation to consume insects related to curiosity, a wish to preserve the planet, the gastronomic characteristics of insects, and their nutritional value. In conclusion, these results clearly indicate a very marked influence of a number of variables on the knowledge about the sustainability of edible insects, and this may be helpful to delineate strategies to effectively raise knowledge and eventually increase the willingness to consider insects as a more sustainable alternative to partially replace other protein foods, even in countries where this is a not a traditional practice.